Functional ecology and conceptualization of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (EcoSystems)

The individual M1 internship lasts approximately three months and, depending on the program, must be completed in a research laboratory or a non-academic organization. It allows students to gain professional experience in the field of biodiversity, evolution, or ecology. It can be carried out in a local, national, or international organization, on a topic approved by the teaching team so as to fit in with the objectives specific to the program followed by the student.

Assessment: Preparation for the internship is assessed on the basis of a written document and a presentation of the internship project. The internship work is assessed during a public presentation before a panel, during which the content of the dissertation and the quality of the responses to the panel's questions are evaluated. The student's behavior and enthusiasm during the internship are assessed by the internship supervisor.

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The aim of this EU is to understand the adaptive biology of organisms by considering individual and population responses to environmental variations. Concrete examples in animal evolutionary ecophysiology will be discussed in the context of global change. The responses of organisms and populations to abiotic parameters (such as temperature, salinity, oxygen availability, pollutants) will be considered, as well as their interactive effects. The course unit will demonstrate the involvement of physiological mechanisms in ecology, from phenotypic and cognitive processes at the intra-individual level to functional variants between individuals and between species. The concepts of intraspecific variability, phenotypic plasticity, and transgenerational effects will also be addressed. This course unit will be illustrated by examples of phenotypic trait analysis (including behavior) within populations. Links with genetic and epigenetic markers will also be discussed. Different approaches (-omics vs. gene/protein target), several experimental designs, and various scales of biological organization will be considered (molecule, gene, phenotype, individual, population, species).

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This module provides an introduction to ethnobotany and ethnoecology in order to understand the material and immaterial dimensions of the relationships between humans and their environment, with a particular focus on the plant world. We will focus in particular on local naming and classification systems, perceptions and representations of nature, resource management practices and uses, and biocultural, ecological, and evolutionary interactions. Ethnobotany and ethnoecology are disciplines at the interface of anthropology, botany, and ecology, which may also borrow tools and concepts from linguistics, archaeology, geography, and agronomy. This module complements the "Ethnoecology and Sustainable Development" module (Master 2) by providing the theoretical and methodological foundations of ethnobotany.

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"The objective of this course is to complement the teachings of the first semester by developing issues related to the evolution of phenotypes and the main methodological approaches associated with them. The teachings will address the evolution of different types of traits (life history traits, traits involved in reproductive strategies, traits involved in biotic interactions, quantitative traits). The main approaches covered include the formalization of game theory, adaptive dynamics, quantitative genetics approaches, and the comparison of theoretical predictions with empirical data. The course includes:

1) lectures on the main concepts of evolutionary ecology;

2) tutorials focused on document studies and exercises

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The objective of this course is to consolidate students' foundations in ecology and/or evolution by inviting them to define a research topic and question(s), formulate relevant hypotheses with supporting arguments, and justify a data acquisition and analysis strategy for testing them.

Summary of EU content:

- Independent work under supervision: identification of a relevant scientific question; bibliographic review to establish the state of the art and justify scientific hypotheses; proposal and justification of a methodological approach (materials and methods) to test the proposed hypotheses.

Types of topics:

Topics may cover any issue identified by students (in groups of 3/4) and approved by the teaching team, and may be based on different approaches to suit the requirements of different courses. For example, students may propose a field sampling or experimentation strategy, a meta-analysis of literature data, an analysis of sequences retrieved from GenBank, an analysis of occurrence data retrieved from GBIF, etc.

In all cases, projects must involve a genuine data acquisition strategy, identified, justified, and described by students in the materials and methods required for M1S2, with a provisional schedule for the project and identification of the tasks that each student will carry out within each group as part of the implementation of the project in M2S3. Projects must also be financially realistic and include a provisional budget, and must be able to be completed within the time available in M2S3.

Assessment methods:

Teaching is based on a problem-based learning approach. Students are assessed on how they progress in developing their approach (40% of the final grade), as well as on their ability to present and defend their project in a final oral exam (60% of the final grade).

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General linear models with one or more random explanatory variables: from translating the figure that answers the biological question to the statistical model, i.e., taking into account numerous effects and knowing how to interpret them.

General properties viewed through regression and one-factor ANOVA (R2, F, ddl, least squares, likelihood, diagnosis, validation, goodness of fit, interpretation of effect sizes); nested and crossed factor ANOVA, multiple regression (concept of parameters and effects, and interaction)

incorporation of the dependence of explanatory random variables, confounding effects (quantitative for multiple regression, and unbalanced designs for ANOVAs)

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The overall objective is to consolidate the foundations in ecology acquired by students and to give them the tools they need to apply them in an integrated way to interpret the functioning of ecological systems. The course includes: 1) lectures on ecological concepts from the population scale to the macroecological scale, using examples of applications that place the discipline in the current ecological and societal context; 2) practical and supervised work focused on tools (sampling strategies, modeling, data analysis); 3) field teaching, during which students are encouraged to ask relevant scientific questions based on their observations in the field and to use their knowledge to answer them in a reasoned manner.

Summary of EU content:

- CM: History of the emergence of concepts in ecology; Population dynamics/metapopulations; Biotic interactions and food webs; Community ecology, metacommunities; Ecosystem ecology/functional ecology; Concepts of macroecology/biogeography; Global change and ecosystem functioning;

- Field: Integrative analysis of ecosystem functioning in situ;

- TD/TP: sampling and experimentation strategies in ecology; modeling in population dynamics/metapopulations, community ecology/metacommunities, food webs; biodiversity measures (alpha, beta, etc.).

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The overall objective is to consolidate students' foundations in evolutionary biology by addressing both (i) macroevolutionary phenomena and the general methods used to analyze them, and (ii) microevolutionary processes with an emphasis on the population genetics approach. This course unit aims to provide a solid foundation of knowledge in evolutionary biology and to illustrate the applications of the discipline to students' future areas of specialization. The course includes: 1) lectures on the concepts of evolution; 2) practical work in two main forms: 2a. sessions focused on the use of tools (phylogeny) and the mathematical formalization of evolutionary processes (population genetics); and 2b: sessions built around group work, allowing students, depending on their background and professional goals, to explore a particular topic in depth (fundamental question or application of evolutionary biology).

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English tutorial courses aimed at developing professional autonomy in the English language.

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ORPAL is a course unit in APP (1/3 fieldwork and 2/3 practical work in the laboratory). The work, carried out in pairs or groups of three under the supervision of a mentor, covers the entire research process, from defining the problem, sampling in the field, data acquisition, to interpretation, writing a scientific article (see https://biologie-ecologie.com/exemples-travaux/), and oral presentation of the results.

ORPAM takes place during the first weeks of teaching. This course begins with a three-day field school (24 hours - orientation course) and continues with a mini laboratory course (24 hours). The course ends with the writing of a popular science article and an oral presentation of the results.

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Generalized linear mixed models + methodology and experimental protocols to account for biological reality: non-normal distribution and pseudo-replication

Protocol optimization, power, and uncontrolled type I risk: variable transformation, polynomial regression, link function, likelihood, model selection

Deviance and goodness-of-fit analysis

Incorporation of blocks, repeated measurements over time, consideration of spatial and temporal correlation, over-dispersion

Graphical representation of predictions.

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The objective of this course unit is to provide the necessary statistical foundations for following the more advanced modules in the curriculum; it is therefore a general refresher course. Descriptive statistics are reviewed (quantiles, cumulative frequency polygons, sample estimators), simple tests are presented, essential graphs for univariate and multivariate data are presented, and the general principle of a statistical test, hypothesis testing, the concept of p-value, and Type I and Type II errors are presented. In practical work, students are also brought up to speed in the R environment.

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The objective of this EU is to enable the implementation of projects defined within the framework of the M1S2 EU project.

Summary of EU content:

- Independent work supervised by student groups: readjustment of project objectives and methodology if necessary, data acquisition, ecological and/or evolutionary analyses and interpretations according to the provisional schedule defined in M1S2, presentation of results at a joint symposium for the different courses.

Assessment methods:

As with the EU M1 project, the EU uses a problem-based learning approach. Students are therefore assessed on an ongoing basis on their progress in completing their project (40% of the final grade), then at the end of the semester on their ability to present the results of their project and discuss them during an oral presentation at a general feedback symposium (60% of the final grade).

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The educational objective of this teaching unit is to reposition the major soil types on a global scale, explain their formation, and identify the mineral phases or main abiotic factors likely to regulate biological activity in soils. Based on this analysis, the various soil organisms (microorganisms, micro-, meso- and macrofauna) will be presented, along with their relationships, in order to reposition the cycle of organic matter and mineral elements in the soil at different temporal and spatial scales. The concepts of recycling, biogeochemical cycles and community assembly rules will also be addressed. This course unit is organized around lectures and conferences, as well as tutorials and fieldwork.

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Ecophysiology is a discipline at the interface between organism biology and ecology. Integrative ecophysiology focuses more specifically on the issue of scaling. In other words, this course aims to illustrate how the study of acclimatization/adaptation mechanisms at the individual (or even sub-individual) level can explain population structure, species distribution, and ecosystem functioning. The responses of organisms and populations to the main structuring abiotic parameters (such as temperature, salinity, oxygen availability, pollutants) will be considered, as well as their interactive effects. The role of interactions between organisms will also be addressed. In this course unit, animals, plants, and microorganisms will be considered, and different types of approaches will be illustrated: field observations, in situ or laboratory experiments.

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The main objective of this course is to provide students with all the skills necessary to understand and use the concepts and methods underlying the quantitative study of population phenomena. The main methods of analysis and modeling of these phenomena will be addressed from both a theoretical (formal calculations) and practical (statistics, simulations) perspective, using examples exploring different phylogenetic scales (microbial dynamics, invasive species, human demography), spatial (from local to global) and temporal (transient and permanent regimes, eco-evolutionary coupling) scales, with particular attention paid to heterogeneity (spatial, genetic or phenotypic) and randomness (stochasticity, uncertainties) characteristic of populations or inherent in their study.

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The objective of this EU is to demonstrate that biological diversity is functional:

1) for different groups of organisms: plants, insects, aquatic organisms, vertebrates, and

2) at different organizational scales (from organisms to ecosystems). The lessons aim to explain how to approach this functional aspect of diversity for the more than 10 million organisms present on the planet's surface, using examples from highly and minimally anthropized environments.

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1. Bayesian inference: Motivation and simple example. 

2. The likelihood. 

3. A detour to explore priors. 

4. Markov chain Monte Carlo methods (MCMC)

5. Bayesian analyses in R with the Jags software.  

6. Compare scientific hypotheses with model selection (WAIC).

7. Heterogeneity and multilevel models (also known as mixed models). 

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The module aims to provide theoretical and practical knowledge of statistical analyses of spatial and temporal constraints: classification and ordination under constraints, '2-table ordination methods and statistical tests: canonical analyses (AFD, CCA, RDA, CAP), 'statistical tests on distance matrices, matrix comparison (PERMANOVA, Mantel, Procrustes)

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The courses present four aspects of conservation biology based on current scientific research in this discipline:  

1. Introduction to biodiversity conservation(BC): definition of conservation biology. Why conserve biodiversity? Who are the main players in BC and what role does science play in BC? 
2. Species conservation: Which species are priorities? How can species be conserved? How can we tell if a species is "well conserved"? 
3. Conserving spaces: Which spaces are priorities? How can spaces be conserved? 
4. Does conservation work?The importance of social acceptability and political commitment. The need for biodiversity indicators and measuring the impact of conservation. 

Students also carry out group work in which they present a BC project, focusing on the following questions: why, what, where, how, how much does it cost, and how can we know if it is effective? 

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The objectives of this EU are to explore key concepts related to climate change, illustrate important notions in ecology and evolution in light of climate change in many different ecosystems, and summarize the various scientific and societal issues and challenges posed by CC.

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"The content of this course unit consists of three main parts: I - Physical characterization and biogeochemical cycles of coastal marine ecosystems II - Biodiversity and functioning of coastal marine ecosystems III - Coastal and maritime law; uses, conflicts, and integrated management of the coastal zone. This course offers students a systemic approach to the study of coastal marine ecosystems from a highly multidisciplinary perspective. The physical structure of these ecosystems will be addressed through courses on their geomorphology and hydrology, with a particular focus on water connections with the open sea and their catchment areas. Their biogeochemistry will be addressed, in particular to describe carbon and nutrient flows through water and sediment compartments. Several aspects of their biodiversity will be illustrated to describe the importance of these ecosystems as habitats for dependent species, with a particular focus on the role of this biodiversity in their functioning. The coastal zone is densely populated by humans (40% of the world's population). Particular attention will be paid to human uses (e.g., aquaculture) and their territorial planning, including the assessment of their ecosystem services in an economic context, management and protection measures (e.g., Marine Protected Areas, Natura 2000), and professionals involved in the management of these environments will present concrete feedback. Finally, the implications of maritime law for the management of coastal areas will be taught. "

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The module covers topics related to identifying, quantifying, and modeling interactions between climate, marine species, and their exploitation.

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Behavioral ecology approaches the study of behavior from an evolutionary perspective in order to examine its mechanisms, function, and contribution to evolutionary and ecological processes. Research conducted in behavioral ecology helps us understand other phenomena observed in other disciplines of biology, as all animals, from single-celled organisms to the most complex vertebrates, exhibit behavior.

The module exposes students to various basic concepts and the multitude of tools that can be used (observations and experiments in natural populations or on captive individuals, comparative analyses, use of modeling tools, ecophysiology, molecular biology, biochemistry, embedded electronics, etc.). Part of the training is based on specific discussions about the research approaches that can be used, the tools employed, and the limits of the inferences that can be made. Students will be asked to participate actively at these different levels, particularly through critical discussions of articles.

The topics covered range from exploring food supply strategies, partner selection, habitat choice, and investment in reproduction, to the study of animal communication and the reasons for living in groups. The historical dimension of the discipline is addressed in the introduction, but also according to the sensitivity of the speakers and the topics covered (meaning and relationships between 'Animal Behavior', 'Ethology', Behavioral Ecology, etc.).

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The objective of this resolutely transdisciplinary course is to provide students with the skills needed for the effective management and relevant use of data of various origins and types, particularly those with a spatial component. The course consists of three complementary and successive sections. The first addresses the challenges inherent in data compilation and the solutions provided by database management systems (DBMS): from database design to queries. The second focuses on geographic information systems (GIS): from cartographic representation to geoprocessing. Finally, the third axis presents the diversity of spatial analysis tools that enable the quantitative exploitation of spatial data, whether metrics or statistical tests.

See the full page

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The educational objective of this teaching unit is to reposition the major soil types on a global scale, explain their formation, and identify the mineral phases or main abiotic factors likely to regulate biological activity in soils. Based on this analysis, the various soil organisms (microorganisms, micro-, meso- and macrofauna) will be presented, along with their relationships, in order to reposition the cycle of organic matter and mineral elements in the soil at different temporal and spatial scales. The concepts of recycling, biogeochemical cycles and community assembly rules will also be addressed. This course unit is organized around lectures and conferences, as well as tutorials and fieldwork.

See the full page

Ecophysiology is a discipline at the interface between organism biology and ecology. Integrative ecophysiology focuses more specifically on the issue of scaling. In other words, this course aims to illustrate how the study of acclimatization/adaptation mechanisms at the individual (or even sub-individual) level can explain population structure, species distribution, and ecosystem functioning. The responses of organisms and populations to the main structuring abiotic parameters (such as temperature, salinity, oxygen availability, pollutants) will be considered, as well as their interactive effects. The role of interactions between organisms will also be addressed. In this course unit, animals, plants, and microorganisms will be considered, and different types of approaches will be illustrated: field observations, in situ or laboratory experiments.

See the full page

The main objective of this course is to provide students with all the skills necessary to understand and use the concepts and methods underlying the quantitative study of population phenomena. The main methods of analysis and modeling of these phenomena will be addressed from both a theoretical (formal calculations) and practical (statistics, simulations) perspective, using examples exploring different phylogenetic scales (microbial dynamics, invasive species, human demography), spatial (from local to global) and temporal (transient and permanent regimes, eco-evolutionary coupling) scales, with particular attention paid to heterogeneity (spatial, genetic or phenotypic) and randomness (stochasticity, uncertainties) characteristic of populations or inherent in their study.

See the full page

The objective of this EU is to demonstrate that biological diversity is functional:

1) for different groups of organisms: plants, insects, aquatic organisms, vertebrates, and

2) at different organizational scales (from organisms to ecosystems). The lessons aim to explain how to approach this functional aspect of diversity for the more than 10 million organisms present on the planet's surface, using examples from highly and minimally anthropized environments.

See the full page

The objective of this resolutely transdisciplinary course is to provide students with the skills needed for the effective management and relevant use of data of various origins and types, particularly those with a spatial component. The course consists of three complementary and successive sections. The first addresses the challenges inherent in data compilation and the solutions provided by database management systems (DBMS): from database design to queries. The second focuses on geographic information systems (GIS): from cartographic representation to geoprocessing. Finally, the third axis presents the diversity of spatial analysis tools that enable the quantitative exploitation of spatial data, whether metrics or statistical tests.

See the full page

See the full page

1. Bayesian inference: Motivation and simple example. 

2. The likelihood. 

3. A detour to explore priors. 

4. Markov chain Monte Carlo methods (MCMC)

5. Bayesian analyses in R with the Jags software.  

6. Compare scientific hypotheses with model selection (WAIC).

7. Heterogeneity and multilevel models (also known as mixed models). 

See the full page

The module aims to provide theoretical and practical knowledge of statistical analyses of spatial and temporal constraints: classification and ordination under constraints, '2-table ordination methods and statistical tests: canonical analyses (AFD, CCA, RDA, CAP), 'statistical tests on distance matrices, matrix comparison (PERMANOVA, Mantel, Procrustes)

See the full page

The courses present four aspects of conservation biology based on current scientific research in this discipline:  

1. Introduction to biodiversity conservation(BC): definition of conservation biology. Why conserve biodiversity? Who are the main players in BC and what role does science play in BC? 
2. Species conservation: Which species are priorities? How can species be conserved? How can we tell if a species is "well conserved"? 
3. Conserving spaces: Which spaces are priorities? How can spaces be conserved? 
4. Does conservation work?The importance of social acceptability and political commitment. The need for biodiversity indicators and measuring the impact of conservation. 

Students also carry out group work in which they present a BC project, focusing on the following questions: why, what, where, how, how much does it cost, and how can we know if it is effective? 

See the full page

The objectives of this EU are to explore key concepts related to climate change, illustrate important notions in ecology and evolution in light of climate change in many different ecosystems, and summarize the various scientific and societal issues and challenges posed by CC.

See the full page

"The content of this course unit consists of three main parts: I - Physical characterization and biogeochemical cycles of coastal marine ecosystems II - Biodiversity and functioning of coastal marine ecosystems III - Coastal and maritime law; uses, conflicts, and integrated management of the coastal zone. This course offers students a systemic approach to the study of coastal marine ecosystems from a highly multidisciplinary perspective. The physical structure of these ecosystems will be addressed through courses on their geomorphology and hydrology, with a particular focus on water connections with the open sea and their catchment areas. Their biogeochemistry will be addressed, in particular to describe carbon and nutrient flows through water and sediment compartments. Several aspects of their biodiversity will be illustrated to describe the importance of these ecosystems as habitats for dependent species, with a particular focus on the role of this biodiversity in their functioning. The coastal zone is densely populated by humans (40% of the world's population). Particular attention will be paid to human uses (e.g., aquaculture) and their territorial planning, including the assessment of their ecosystem services in an economic context, management and protection measures (e.g., Marine Protected Areas, Natura 2000), and professionals involved in the management of these environments will present concrete feedback. Finally, the implications of maritime law for the management of coastal areas will be taught. "

See the full page

The module covers topics related to identifying, quantifying, and modeling interactions between climate, marine species, and their exploitation.

See the full page

Behavioral ecology approaches the study of behavior from an evolutionary perspective in order to examine its mechanisms, function, and contribution to evolutionary and ecological processes. Research conducted in behavioral ecology helps us understand other phenomena observed in other disciplines of biology, as all animals, from single-celled organisms to the most complex vertebrates, exhibit behavior.

The module exposes students to various basic concepts and the multitude of tools that can be used (observations and experiments in natural populations or on captive individuals, comparative analyses, use of modeling tools, ecophysiology, molecular biology, biochemistry, embedded electronics, etc.). Part of the training is based on specific discussions about the research approaches that can be used, the tools employed, and the limits of the inferences that can be made. Students will be asked to participate actively at these different levels, particularly through critical discussions of articles.

The topics covered range from exploring food supply strategies, partner selection, habitat choice, and investment in reproduction, to the study of animal communication and the reasons for living in groups. The historical dimension of the discipline is addressed in the introduction, but also according to the sensitivity of the speakers and the topics covered (meaning and relationships between 'Animal Behavior', 'Ethology', Behavioral Ecology, etc.).

See the full page

See the full page

1. Bayesian inference: Motivation and simple example. 

2. The likelihood. 

3. A detour to explore priors. 

4. Markov chain Monte Carlo methods (MCMC)

5. Bayesian analyses in R with the Jags software.  

6. Compare scientific hypotheses with model selection (WAIC).

7. Heterogeneity and multilevel models (also known as mixed models). 

See the full page

The module aims to provide theoretical and practical knowledge of statistical analyses of spatial and temporal constraints: classification and ordination under constraints, '2-table ordination methods and statistical tests: canonical analyses (AFD, CCA, RDA, CAP), 'statistical tests on distance matrices, matrix comparison (PERMANOVA, Mantel, Procrustes)

See the full page

The courses present four aspects of conservation biology based on current scientific research in this discipline:  

1. Introduction to biodiversity conservation(BC): definition of conservation biology. Why conserve biodiversity? Who are the main players in BC and what role does science play in BC? 
2. Species conservation: Which species are priorities? How can species be conserved? How can we tell if a species is "well conserved"? 
3. Conserving spaces: Which spaces are priorities? How can spaces be conserved? 
4. Does conservation work?The importance of social acceptability and political commitment. The need for biodiversity indicators and measuring the impact of conservation. 

Students also carry out group work in which they present a BC project, focusing on the following questions: why, what, where, how, how much does it cost, and how can we know if it is effective? 

See the full page

The objectives of this EU are to explore key concepts related to climate change, illustrate important notions in ecology and evolution in light of climate change in many different ecosystems, and summarize the various scientific and societal issues and challenges posed by CC.

See the full page

"The content of this course unit consists of three main parts: I - Physical characterization and biogeochemical cycles of coastal marine ecosystems II - Biodiversity and functioning of coastal marine ecosystems III - Coastal and maritime law; uses, conflicts, and integrated management of the coastal zone. This course offers students a systemic approach to the study of coastal marine ecosystems from a highly multidisciplinary perspective. The physical structure of these ecosystems will be addressed through courses on their geomorphology and hydrology, with a particular focus on water connections with the open sea and their catchment areas. Their biogeochemistry will be addressed, in particular to describe carbon and nutrient flows through water and sediment compartments. Several aspects of their biodiversity will be illustrated to describe the importance of these ecosystems as habitats for dependent species, with a particular focus on the role of this biodiversity in their functioning. The coastal zone is densely populated by humans (40% of the world's population). Particular attention will be paid to human uses (e.g., aquaculture) and their territorial planning, including the assessment of their ecosystem services in an economic context, management and protection measures (e.g., Marine Protected Areas, Natura 2000), and professionals involved in the management of these environments will present concrete feedback. Finally, the implications of maritime law for the management of coastal areas will be taught. "

See the full page

The module covers topics related to identifying, quantifying, and modeling interactions between climate, marine species, and their exploitation.

See the full page

Behavioral ecology approaches the study of behavior from an evolutionary perspective in order to examine its mechanisms, function, and contribution to evolutionary and ecological processes. Research conducted in behavioral ecology helps us understand other phenomena observed in other disciplines of biology, as all animals, from single-celled organisms to the most complex vertebrates, exhibit behavior.

The module exposes students to various basic concepts and the multitude of tools that can be used (observations and experiments in natural populations or on captive individuals, comparative analyses, use of modeling tools, ecophysiology, molecular biology, biochemistry, embedded electronics, etc.). Part of the training is based on specific discussions about the research approaches that can be used, the tools employed, and the limits of the inferences that can be made. Students will be asked to participate actively at these different levels, particularly through critical discussions of articles.

The topics covered range from exploring food supply strategies, partner selection, habitat choice, and investment in reproduction, to the study of animal communication and the reasons for living in groups. The historical dimension of the discipline is addressed in the introduction, but also according to the sensitivity of the speakers and the topics covered (meaning and relationships between 'Animal Behavior', 'Ethology', Behavioral Ecology, etc.).

See the full page

The objective is to master the modeling and statistical analysis of ecosystem data. Students will need to be able to model complex systems (e.g., plants in a cultivated ecosystem, population dynamics, lake ecosystems). They will also need to know what type of statistical model to use for processing ecological data and how to interpret it.

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The objective of this EU is to support students in developing their career plans and searching for internships, while beginning to prepare for their integration into professional life by providing a comprehensive and personalized overview of possible career paths.

In practical terms, meetings with various stakeholders provide an opportunity to present the doctoral thesis (presentation of the GAIA doctoral school, presentations by doctoral students) and the professional network targeted by the various courses (research professions and non-academic sector). Activities specific to each course then enable students to better target the scientific fields most relevant to their professional projects. Finally, tutorial sessions are designed to prepare students for writing scientific articles in English.

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This EU addresses questions surrounding ecosystem management from a social science perspective, particularly that of "science studies." It aims to contribute to the development of a general culture related to the relationship between ecological sciences and societies, and to equip participants with the tools to analyze social issues and underlying socio-scientific controversies. The first part of the course provides the conceptual and methodological framework necessary to present a reflective tool for analyzing the roles of actors and arguments (epistemological, axiological) involved in socio-scientific controversies, and illustrates this tool with current examples. Subsequently, thematic presentations by researchers in ecology illustrate a variety of issues surrounding ecological sciences and serve as a basis for students to apply and acquire the reflective analysis tool. Students are thus assessed on their ability to use this analytical framework to take an individual and reasoned position in controversies related to ecological sciences.

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The objective of this EU is to support students in finalizing their professional projects and preparing for life after their master's degree.

The EU is organized on a course-wide basis, with regular discussion sessions between the teaching team and students.

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The individual M2 internship lasts approximately 5 to 6 months and must be carried out, depending on the course concerned, in a research laboratory or a non-academic organization. It allows students to gain in-depth professional experience in the field of biodiversity, evolution, or ecology. It can be carried out in a local, national, or international organization, on a topic approved by the teaching team so as to fit in with the specific objectives of the program followed by the student.

Assessment: The internship is assessed during a public defense before a jury, during which the content of the thesis and the quality of the responses to the jury's questions are evaluated. The student's behavior and enthusiasm during the internship are assessed by the internship supervisor.

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